The Effects of Air and Water Pollution on the Fertility and Population ofSongbirds

Jesse Miller, Mia Wang, and Grace Yuan

Academy of Science and Technology

Scientific Research and Design Period 5

Dr. Fox

September 20, 2021

The Effects of Air and Water Pollution on the Fertility and Population ofSongbirds

Songbirds are essential factors in the world’s ecosystems. Each year, 400-500 million pests are consumed by songbirds(Law, 2019). Their extermination abilities are so valued in Europe that nest boxes, shelters for birds, havebecome a standard method of insect control. Moreover, they act as excellent pollinators by allowing plantsto produce seeds and maintaining the natural balance of the ecosystem at high altitudes bees cannot reach.As airborne animals, their droppings also bring life to ruined ecosystems and new areas as songbirds candisperse seeds far from where they wereconsumed (Law, 2019). In the forests of New Zealand alone, 70% of all plant seeds are distributed bysongbirds, making them the primary seed dispersers in those ecosystems.

All around the world, these birds have a positive net impact on theirecosystems. However, over the past half-century, 2.9 billion fewer birdshave been sighted in flight in North America (Zimmer, 2019). This information provokes a dire question;why are all the songbirds disappearing so rapidly?Researchers believe this is due to the damaging effects of air and waterpollution (Sanderfoot & Holloway, 2017).

Air pollution is typically created by the production and use of energy. Whenfossil fuels are burned, gases and chemicals are released into the air, contributing to and aggravatingclimate change (Mackenzie & Turrentine, 2021). With experimentation dating back to the 1950s, airpollution is notorious for causing health problems for humans, such as respiratory diseases, cancer, and even death (Sanderfoot & Holloway, 2017).Regarding the effects of air pollutants on humans,few have elaborated on their adverse effects on wild animal populations. Birds, particularly withtheir efficient avian respiratory system, are sensitive to harmful airconditions (Sanderfoot & Holloway, 2017). Helpful features such as their cross-current gas exchange and single direction airflow presentin these systems also endanger birds when theyare exposed to excessive concentrations of gases and aerosols (Sanderfoot & Holloway, 2017). Long-termexposure to such conditions can cause lung inflammation, lung failure, andruptured blood vessels in songbirds (Qin, 2015). Furthermore, studies show thattraffic emissions, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), may reduce bird development, fertility, andweight.

Water pollution also contributes to the songbirds’ seemingly swiftdisappearance. With agricultural and industrial waste leading to world water pollution, atrazine, arsenic,cadmium, and mercury runoff repeatedly cause deaths and illness forbirds (Denchak, 2018; Fredericks, 2017). The chemicals in the water not only affect the water the birds drink but also the fishthat the birds eat. Furthermore, accidents like crude oil spills only exasperate therate of aquatic bird deaths (Fredericks, 2017). When oil gets on their feathers, it can ruin their waterproof quality and, therefore, protection againstthe environment (Environmental Pollution Centers, 2009). Then, while cleaning themselves, many birds die orbecome ill from ingesting oil (Fredericks, 2017).

The purpose of this experiment isto determine whether the recent decline of songbirds is due to air and water pollution creating adverse effects on their habitats, lifestyle, and,therefore, fertility. The hypothesis of this studyis that birds will become less fertile over time due toair and water pollution. To test this, the researchers will use four different islands with varyingconditions. Island A will be subject to air pollution with carbon monoxide, nitrogenoxide, and sulfur dioxide, the most common air pollutants diffused throughout the area (Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention, 2021). Island B will be contaminated with water pollutants such as atrazine, thesecond most used pesticide in the nation, and arsenic, cadmium, and mercury, the most common heavy metalpollutants (Environmental Pollution Centers, 2009). It will also contain crude oil, the most common oil inoil spills (Lenntech, 2005). Island C will be a combination of Island A and B with both water and airpollution. Finally, Island D will be the control with no pollution at all. The various pollutants of eachisland will be the independent variables, while the blood cell abnormalities,eggs, avian weight, bird infant mortality rate (IMR), and mortality will be the variables tested.

Method

Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, andcarbon monoxide are all toxic if inhaled and will explode if heated. In addition, these harmful pollutants can damage the human respiratory tract and causelong-term lung damage to humans (Queensland, 2013). To avoid these complications, researchers should wear a gas mask and goggles beforereleasing gaseous air pollutants and extinguish any open fires.

While adding crude oil, atrazine,arsenic, cadmium, and mercury to water sources on the islands, the researchers will wear goggles, gloves,gas masks, protective clothing, and extinguish any openfires. These water pollutants can cause mortality once inhaled, organ damage, and cancer. Therefore, researchers should not consume or inhale any substances used in the experiment and operate all with extreme care.See Appendix A for all previously mentioned substance’s safety data sheets.

When handling live birds, researchers will wear safety goggles, thick gloves, and long sleeves to avoid beingpecked, contracting any diseases, and maintaining the bird’s safety. While working with eggs, gloves will beworn when measuring and weighing. Furthermore, researchers will use clean gloves, lab coats, and sterilizethe lab before and after each bird when drawing blood. While disposing of passedbirds from islands, use gloves and follow federal guidelines.

When entering any contaminated area, researchers will follow previously statedsafety measures. Moreover, to ensure the protection of the naturalenvironment surrounding the dome, ventilators will be used to stop air pollution from exiting the island.

Materials

• 400 house sparrows (Passerdomesticus), around 6 months of age, 1: 1 gender ratio
• 4 circular islands located in the Pacific Ocean, 3 acres perisland as the diameter, including one major freshwater river running through with streams connected,mulberries and flowering dogwood trees, shrubs of different densities, two meadows, and a 13,000 ft tallglass dome with 3 cm breathing holes every 1 inch, ventilators, and one six-foot glass door
• 165,108 kilograms of pesticide-free organic oats birdseed,1704g per day/12.18 kg a week
• 40 PCs, Bird feeder with 4.1-kilogram bird seed capacity, andfour feeding ports
• 490 ppm Carbon monoxidehttps://www.lindeus.com/gases/buy-carbon-monoxide-gas
• 742 ppb Nitrogen oxidehttps://www.lindeus.com/gases/buy-nitrogen-dioxide-gas
• 1400 ppm Sulfur dioxidehttps://www.lindeus.com/gases/buy-sulfur-dioxide-gas
• 265 liters of Atrazine https://www.keystonepestsolutions.com/atrazine-4-l-herbicide-2-19 liters-790
• 76.2 kilograms of crushed Arsenichttps://www.amazon.com/Arsenic-99-9999-Crystalline-Metalloid-Collection/dp/B071JR5SP5
• 76.2 kilograms of crushed Cadmiumhttps://www.goodfellow.com/A/Cadmium.html
• 328 liters of Mercuryhttps://luciteria.com/elements-for-sale/mercury-metal-999
• 328 liters of Crude oilhttps://www.amazon.com/Unrefined-Crude-Sample-Texas-16oz/dp/B00GDZ8GS4/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1416954196&sr=8-2&keywords=crude+oil&pebp=1416954214562
• 6824 PCs, Bird tags labeled1-400.
• 2615 PCs, Egg incubator with 12 slots and humiditydisplay
• 1 PC, Scalemeasuring in ounces
• 31374 PCs, Eyedropper, 1mL Capacity
• 31374 PCs, 28 gauge needle
• 1 PC, 100X-2000X Microscope
• 31374 PCs, Microscope slides
• 31374 PCs, Microscope slides coverslip
• 1 PC, PH20 Waterproof pH Tester Kit with ±0.1 pHAccuracy
• 1 PC, Airthings 2930 Wave Plus - Radon& Air Quality Monitor, measures CO2, VOC, Humidity, Temp, and Pressure
• 365 mg of Midazolam

https://www.henryschein.com/midazolam.aspx

• 1 PC, 20x7 cm cardboard box
• 1 PC, Tape ruler with centimeter-scale from 1-160 cm

Procedures

Setting up the Islands

1. In one of the four islands, release 70 ppm Carbon monoxide, 106 ppb Nitrogen oxide, 200 ppm Sulfur dioxide into thedome through the glass door, and label Island A.
2. In one of the three remaining islands, pour 19 liters ofAtrazine, 0.453 kg of crushed Arsenic, 0.453 kg of crushed Cadmium, 19 liters of Mercury, and 19 litersof Crude oil into the river upstream, and labelIsland B.
3. In one of the two islands, repeat the contamination in steps 1-2and label Island C. When entering and leaving the environment, close the door toensure no contamination spreads outside.
4. Label the last island Island D. This will be the controlisland with no pollution added.
5. Place ten bird feeders per island with one bird feeder per13,068 square feet.
6. Place 3.045 kg ofpesticide-free organic oats into each island’s ten birdfeeders once a week for seven years.

Testing Birds

1. Sedate all birds using instructions fromSedation and Analgesia in Birds (Mans, 2015).
2. Cup both hands tightly together in a bowel motion. Gently holdone sedated Passer domesticus with this motion underneath, making sure not to squeeze, strike, or shakethe bird. Place the bird inside a 20x7 cm cardboard box and use the scale to find the total weight. Then, subtract the total weight from the boxweight to find the bird’s weight.
3. Repeat step 2 for the remaining 399 birds.
4. Lift the right-wing of one Passer domesticus and use a 27gauge needle to draw 0.1g of blood from the jugular vein. Rid the needle after use by placing it into asharp disposal container and discarding the container following the United States of America.
5. Using an eyedropper, release one droplet of blood onto themicroscope slide, slide the coverslip over, and observe blood cells. Look for any unnatural, discolored,or lack of red blood cells. These will be used to see changes pollution may or may not cause to theirblood. See Clinical Avian Medicine forinstructions (Samour, 2016).
6. Repeat steps 4 to 5 for the remaining 399 birds.

Tagging and Releasing Birds

1. Lift the left wing of a female Passerdomesticus and attach tag 1A onto the left footankle.
2. Repeat step 1 for an additional 49 female birds, attachingtags (2A-49A) accordingly.
3. Lift the left wing of a male Passer domesticus and attach tag 51A onto the left foot ankle.
4. Repeat step 3 for an additional 49 male birds, attaching tags(52A-100A) accordingly, so birds tagged 1A-50A are female and 51A-100A are male.
5. Lift the left wing of a female Passerdomesticus and attach tag 101A onto the left foot ankle.
6. Repeat step 5 for an additional 49 female birds, attachingtags (102A-150A) accordingly.
7. Lift the left wing of a male Passerdomesticus and attach tag 151A onto the left foot ankle.
8. Repeat step 7 for an additional 49 male birds, attaching tags(152A-200A) accordingly, so birds tagged 101A-150A are female and 151A-200A are male.
9. Lift the left wing of a female Passerdomesticus and attach tag 201A onto the left foot ankle.
10. Repeat step 9 for an additional 49 female birds, attachingtags (202A-250A) accordingly.
11. Lift the left wing of a male Passerdomesticus and attach tag 251 onto the left foot ankle.
12. Repeat step 11 for an additional 49 male birds, attaching tags(252A-300A) accordingly, so birds tagged 201A-250A are female and 251A-300A are male.
13. Lift the left wing of a female Passerdomesticus and attach tag 301A onto the left foot ankle.
14. Repeat step 13 for an additional 49 female birds, attachingtags (302A-350A) accordingly.
15. Lift the left wing of a male Passerdomesticus and attach tag 351A onto the left foot ankle.
16. Repeat step 15 for an additional 49 male birds, attaching tags(352A-400A) accordingly, so birds tagged 301A-350A are female and 351A-400A are male.
17. Release birds tagged 1A-100A, 50 female, and 50 male, intoIsland A at night.
18. Release birds tagged 101A-200A, 50 female, and 50 male, intoIsland B at night.
19. Release birds tagged 201A-300A, 50 female, and 50 male, into Island C at night.
20. Release birds tagged 301A-400A, 50 female, and 50 male, intoIsland D at night.
21. All birds born after the first tagging will be labeled based ontheir island, gender, and generation, with Island A being 1-100, B, 101-200, C, 201-300, and D, 301-400.Females will be the first 50, males last 50, and the last letter changing with each generation from A toB to C and so forth.

Observing Pregnant Birds and Their Offspring

1. After three months from the original start of the experiment,most female birds will reach maturity and become pregnant. Repeat steps 1 to 5 from Testing Birds on all pregnant sparrows. Pregnant birdswill be identified through the bald spot on their bellies and less frequent flying. The researchers willcheck every day during the last week before the third month by entering the islands.
2. Place an empty incubator onto the scale and measure in ounces.
3. On the night an egg is laid, gently cup the egg with both hands,write the tag number of the mother on the corresponding egg with a pencil, put it into an incubator, andtake it back to the lab within 30 minutes.
4. Gently surround one egg with two handsaround the side and remove it from the incubator, placing it into anotherincubator.
5. Remove all remaining eggs but one in the incubator by repeatingstep 4 in Observing Pregnant Birds and Their Offspring.
6. Place the incubator with the egg inside on the scale and weighit in ounces. Subtract the incubator and egg weight from the incubator to find the weight of the egg inounces.
7. Wrap the measuring tape around the egg horizontally with thedominant hand, maintain the balance of the egg with the non-dominant hand, and measure the circumferenceof the egg.
8. Place the eggs into an incubator and return the correspondingegg to their correct mothers and islands within 30 mins.
9. Repeat steps 3-8 in ObservingPregnant Birds and Their Offspring on remaining and future eggs laid.
10. Two weeks after an egg has hatched, repeat steps 1 to 5 in Testing Birds on the bird, tag them using step 21 of Tagging and Releasing Birds.

Continuing the Experiment

1. Every two weeks, on a Monday, repeat all steps from Testing Birds to observe changes over time in blood and bird weight.
2. Every month, re-release the same amount of pollution originally added to each island byrepeating all steps mentioned in Setting up theIslands, ignoring labeling, and adding thecorresponding pollution to each island. Test the air quality index in Islands A and C to ensure thatit is at least 301. See Airthings Wave PlusOperating manual for instructions on testing air quality (Airthings Wave Plus, 2018). Ensure the pH levels of the rivers on Islands B and C are at least 8.5 by usingthe pH tester. Use instructions on measuring pH levelsin the Premium Series PC60 5-in-1 Test usermanual (Apera Instruments, 2015). If the pH or air quality is toolow, add increasing intervals of one percent of the pollution added originally.Stop when the air quality index reaches at least 301and the water pH level is no less than 8.5.
3. Continue this experiment for seven years recording sparrowweight, blood abnormalities, egg weight, egg circumference, infant mortality rate, and mortality usingsteps 1 to 5 from Testing Birds, and all fromObserving Pregnant Birds and Their Offspring, Continuing the Experiment,while continuously tagging the new birds by using step 21 from Tagging and Releasing Birds on anybirds alive.

Results

In this experiment, researchers willobserve blood cell abnormalities and the number of eggs laid. Blood cell observations will allow researchersto detect if the bird's immune systems are compromised or ifthe respiratory system has been damaged (Ritchison, n.d.). The researchers will measure egg circumference in centimeters,sparrow weight in ounces, sparrow IMR, and sparrow mortality of each of the islands over the seven-yearperiod. The number of eggs that did not hatch plus the number of sparrows lessthan six weeks of age that died/live egg births equation will be used to calculate the IMR. The researcherswill track and organize each bird by island by employing corresponding number tags to make recording andreading data more accessible. This method will allow researchers to quickly collect information and thenorganize it based on the different islands into atable.

The researchers will compare the starting blood cell counts of the birds to theblood cell counts during the wellness checks. The data will set a precedent for bird weight and be comparedto see changes in bird weight in ounces. This vitalinformation can give insight into the health of the bird and its eating habits. The researcherswill determine if the pollution affects theeggs’ weight and/orsize. Egg size can be an indicator of the pollutants' effects on fertility. Thisinformation will be recorded, organized, and inputted into a table.

The data table for this study will be organized with the four islands as the column spannersabbreviated as the last letter in their name (ex: Island A will be A). Respective bird tag numbersunderneath the column spanners will be labeled underneath, from left to right. Column headings will be addedto distinguish female and male sparrows, with the first fifty numbers in each hundred underneath F (Female)and the last fifty underneath M (Male). There will be four-column spanners, eight-column headings directlyunderneath, and 400 columns labeled 1-400 subdivided respectively by islands and gender. The subheading willbe labeled DV (Dependent Variables). Lining up one row underneath the 1-400 bird columns, the sparrow weight(oz), egg weight (oz), egg circumference (cm), infant mortality rate, the crude mortality rate for every 100birds, and blood abnormalities will be inputted into rows in the exact order listed. Additional birds bornwill be added underneath their respective island with their specific letter indicating whichgeneration.

This table will allow the researchers to visually represent the trends in thebird population, fertility, weight, and egg information. The table will also let the researchers seepatterns by taking the data and comparing it side by side in chronological order and by island. See Figure 1for an outline of the table.

Figure 1

General Outline of Table Setup

Note. This is asimplified outline of the table used to store data. This table outline was created by researchers and servesas a visual representation of the desired table’s format.

Utilizing the statistics about the egg weight, the egg circumference, the bloodcount, and the bird's weight, the researchers willcreate line graphs to represent the data over the wholetime to show the little changes. Bar graphs will also be created to represent the overall totals from theexperiment visually. This will make a proper conclusion for the experiment. For example, suppose thefertility rates, blood cells, and egg circumference of the birds living on Island B are below the averageset by Islands A and D. In that case, a conclusion could be that water pollutants affect the birds more negatively than air pollution,therefore resulting in the primary reason of the decline in the bird population.

These graphs will show the trends of the data over time and the patterns from thefirst to third, first to fourth, and first to seventhyears. The long and short-term effects on Passer domesticus fertility and population will be easily shown and understoodthrough these graphs. The researchers will determine the impact of pollution onsongbirds by observing the changes in the data on the graph and fitting a line to the data. For example,while fertility may not drop immediately from exposure to pollution, prolonged exposure could cause thenumber of eggs laid to lower each year.

The researchers will also calculate the percent differences of the averagesbetween the different islands to determine the significance of the environment on each variable. Theresearchers will then analyze the data using statistical tests, such as a cross-group correlation test usinga standard ANOVA analysis. These tests will allow researchers to determine if there is a statisticallysignificant difference between the data for each of these variables between the differentenvironments.

Annotated Bibliography

Airthings Wave Plus. (2018). Smart Radon Detector withIndoor Air Quality Sensors operating manual. Retrieved from https://www.airthings.com/hubfs/Website/Manuals/Wave%20Plus/Wave-Plus-manual-ENG.pdf?hsLang=en-us

These are the instructions onusing an air quality tester.

Apera Instruments. (2015). Premium Series PC60 5-in-1Tester User Manual. Retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/zcom-media/sites/a0i0L00000VJHGsQAP/media/mediamanager/PC60_v7.7.pdf

This is the instruction manualwith information on how to handle and work a pH tester.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, March 16). Air pollutants. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Retrieved September 13, 2021, from https://www.cdc.gov/air/pollutants.htm.

This article talks about thesix pollutants identified as “criteria” air pollutants. These six pollutants are;carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. These six pollutantsare heavily monitored because of human health. These six are also the biggest pollutants found in the airtoday. This article lists the different health deficits for the different gases and the main ways they arereleased into the atmosphere. These pollutants are big problems for the animals and for people. The articleconcludes by referencing back to the statistics and how this could be detrimental to the humanpopulation.

Denchak, M. (2018, May 14). Water Pollution:Everything You Need to Know. Natural Resources Defense Council. Retrieved fromhttps://www.nrdc.org/stories/water-pollution-everything-you-need-know

In this article, Melissa Denchak,a freelance writer, explains water pollution. Water pollution is a big problem, unsafe water causes moredeaths than violence each year. With less than one percent of accessible freshwater, the demand for cleanwater by 2050 is estimated to be one-third greater than it is now. Melissa describes the categories of waterpollution, which are groundwater, surface water, ocean water, point source, non-point source, andtransboundary. The most common types of water contamination are agricultural, sewage and wastewater, oilpollution, and radioactive substances. Every year, unsafe water makes about one billion people sick. Toprevent more water contamination and limit your contribution, you can reduce plastic consumption, properlydispose of chemicals, and speak out in support of the Clean Water Rule.

Environmental Pollution Centers. (2009). What Is WaterPollution? Environmental Pollution Centers. Retrieved fromhttps://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/water/

Water pollution is the presenceof toxic chemicals and contaminants in groundwater that pose a threat to human health. Regardless of size orlocation, any type of water can be polluted, including precipitation water, huge bodies of water, lakes inremote areas, etc. Quick diffusion and dissipation of contamination can result in bigger bodies of waterrequiring less time for recovery. The main sources of water pollution are results from chemical substancesfrom medical, industrial, and household waste. Agricultural fertilizers and accidental oil spills canpollute water to a large extent. This can affect both the health of humans and the ecosystem. Waterpollution can cause a variety of diseases, mainly because humans are exposed to polluted water in variousways.

Fredericks, J. (2017, April 24). Pollution Effects onBirds. Sciencing. Retrieved fromhttps://sciencing.com/pollution-effects-birds-5317418.html

Jonae Fredricks is a certified paraeducator and started writing in 2007. The focusof this article is pollution, which is in the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat.Humans are not the only ones affected by pollution; birds are too. Jonae explains the different types ofpollutants and their impacts on birds. Noise pollution can cause communication problems for some birdsbecause of their low-frequency vocals. This can affect their ability to attract a mate and communicate withother birds. “Waterbirds” are the most affected by oil pollution, approximately 500,000 water birds arekilled every year by oil spills. The oil can cause birds to become ill or die from poisoning. Birds use thelight of stars to navigate, making the bright lights of cities confusing for birds. Light pollution can alsocause birds to crash into buildings and other objects. Pesticides and heavy metals that leak into riverscause illnesses and death to not only humans but also birds. Water pollutants can also kill fish, which area vital food source for many birds. Air pollution is a big problem for birds because of their highrespiratory rates, making them more susceptible to air pollutants and impurities.

Law, J. (2019, January 4). Why we need birds (far morethan they need us). BirdLife International. Retrieved fromhttps://www.birdlife.org/worldwide/news/why-we-need-birds-far-more-they-need-us

Birds play a huge role in theworld’s ecosystems. They impact human health, the economy, food production, and millions of other species.Birds can control pests, they eat 400-500 million tons of insects every year. Birds also pollinate plants,around five percent of plants used by humans for medicine or food are bird-pollinated. Vultures providewaste disposal worth around 11,600 dollars. Without vultures, the spread of deadly diseases, such as rabiesand tuberculosis can rapidly develop and spread. When birds travel, they spread seeds, bringing backdestroyed ecosystems and shaping the plant life around us. Lastly, birds inspire science. The studies ofbirds have shaped the process of natural selection. Birds also respond quickly to changes in theenvironment, they are an early-warning system for issues such as climate change.

Lenntech. (2005). Metals in aquatic freshwater.Lenntech. Retrieved from https://www.lenntech.com/aquatic/metals.htm

This article explains therelationship between metals and freshwater ecosystems. The most common metal pollution in freshwater is frommining, other factors include weathering, volcanic eruptions, and human activities. Metal particles becomemore mobile when the PH in water lowers, making metals more toxic in soft waters. Metal is also notbiodegradable, which results in local and dispersed pollution causing environmental damage. Some metals aretolerable in small amounts, when there is an excess amount, the chemicals can be poisonous. Low exposure tometals can lead to chronic illnesses. Studies have shown that fish living in freshwater ecosystems candevelop tolerance to metal pollution when exposed to a small amount.

Mackenzie, J. & Turrentine, J. (2021, June 22). Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know. Natural ResourcesDefense Council. Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/stories/air-pollution-everything-you-need-know

Jillian Mackenzie and JeffTurrentine are both writers for magazines. In this article, they explained how air pollution is affectingthe planet and humans’ health. Air pollution is responsible for seven million deaths every year, and it iscaused by energy use and production. There are two main types of air pollution: Smog and soot. Smog, alsoknown as ground-level ozone, is caused by emissions from fossil fuels when it reacts with sunlight. Soot istiny particles of different chemicals like soil, smoke dust, and allergens carried in the air. In the UnitedStates, the Clean Air Act has greatly reduced the amount of air pollution but the most effective way ofreducing pollution is to switch to cleaner renewable fuels.

Mans, C. (2015). Sedation and Analgesia in Birds.University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine.

These are the instructions on how to sedate a bird.

Qin, K. (2015, July 23). Birds suffer from airpollution, just like we do. National Audubon Society. Retrieved fromhttps://ca.audubon.org/news/birds-suffer-air-pollution-just-we-do This article is written by Kenneth Qin, anecologist & data scientist. He describesthe direct impacts of air pollution on birds and their habitats. Kenneth found that birds suffer from thesame respiratory problems as humans when exposed to air pollution. Ozone and nitrogen oxides can lead toinflammation, ruptured blood vessels, and lung failure. In addition, birds are exposed to more airborneparticles, making them more susceptible to particles lodging in their lungs. Studies have found that airpollution can cause reduced egg production, increased brood abandonment, reduced growth in birds, and lowerbody weights. The birds’ habitats are vulnerable to ozone damage, making ozone reduce the biodiversity of aspecies and paving the way for invasive species.

Queensland. (2013, August 29). Nitrogenoxides. Queensland Government. Retrieved fromhttps://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air/air-pollution/pollutants/nitrogen-oxides. Nitrogen oxides, a mixture of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, are gases produced by natural sources,motor vehicles, and other fuel-burning processes. Nitrogen oxides are what produce the yellowish-brown colorof smog, a type of air pollution. When oxidized in the atmosphere, the colorless gas forms a highlycorrosive gas called nitrogen dioxide. Higher levels of nitrogen dioxide can lead to damage to the humanrespiratory system and asthma. Long-term exposure to the gas can cause chronic lung disease. The recommendedair quality standards are 0.12 parts per million for one hour and 0.03 parts per million for an annualexposure period.

Ritchison, G. (n.d.). Bird RespiratorySystems. Bird respiratory system. Retrieved September 16, 2021, fromhttps://www.people.eku.edu/ritchisong/birdrespiration.html Thisarticle explains how common bird respiratory systems interact with the other systems in the bird's body. Thearticle also details the interaction with the bird's unidirectional respiratory system and the bloodstream.The blood cells take the air and distribute it to the rest of the body. This is necessary because musclesrequire air to work and without air, the muscle converts the available glucose into lactic acid. The bird'srespiratory system is unique, no other animal has a unidirectional airflow. This makes birds extremelysusceptible to the pollution in the air. This article concludes with many graphs and diagrams detailing abird’s respiratory system.

Samour, J. (2016). Clinical Avian Medicine. Mosby Ltd.

These are the instructionsfor how to use the blood test onbirds.

Sanderfoot, O. V., & Holloway, T. (2017, August 11). Air pollution impacts onavian species via inhalation exposure and associated outcomes. EnvironmentalResearch Letters 12(083002), 1-10.

This article explains that a bird'srespiratory system is unidirectional airflow and cross-current gas exchange. Their respiratory systems aremore efficient than any other type of terrestrial vertebrate. This article states that avian species aremore likely to be susceptible to high concentrations of reactive gases and aerosols. It also states thatchronic dietary exposure to heavy metals has been shown to limit avian reproductive success. It mentions howbirds are sentinel species for air quality. Often used to test and warn of unsafe air conditions. Thearticle also shows that because birds are more susceptible to air pollution they get many health detrimentsfrom the contamination such as hemorrhaging and inflammation in the capillary network, necrosis ofepithelial cells lining the air capillaries, and symptoms of pulmonary edema.

Zimmer, C. (2019, September 20). Birds Are Vanishing From North America.An Ecological ‘Crisis’ as 2.9 Billion Birds Vanish,1-1.

In this article, Zimmer speaks on thedisappearance of birds in North America. Using analysis from the journal Science, he reports on findings andreactions of massive bird population declination. With David Yarnold, the president of the National AudubonSociety, and additional researchers proclaiming that this was a full-blown crisis. They offer possiblereasonings based on research such as wide-spread use of pesticides and increased habitat loss. This reportused references and quotes from Science, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, The Audubon Society, the Universityof Exeter, the University of California, Santa Barbara, and was published by The New York Times.

Appendix A

Safety Data Sheet Links

Arsenic:

https://www.weizmann.ac.il/safety/sites/safety/files/uploads/MSDS/Arsenic.pdf

Atrazine: https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/agrian-cg-fs1-production/pdfs/Atrazine_4L_MSDS11.pdf

Cadmium: https://www.fishersci.com/store/msds?partNumber=C3500&productDescription=CADMIUM+METAL+GRAN+PURIF+500G&vendorId=VN00033897&countryCode=US&language=en

Carbon Monoxide:

https://www.airgas.com/msds/001014.pdf

Crude Oil:

https://whiting.com/wp-content/uploads/Crude-Oil-Sweet-SDS.pdf

Mercury: https://www.fishersci.com/store/msds?partNumber=M1416LB&productDescription=MERCURY+MTL+INST+GRD+REAG+6LB&vendorId=VN00033897&countryCode=US&language=en

Midazolam:

https://www.caymanchem.com/msdss/16193m.pdf

Nitrous Oxide:

https://www.weizmann.ac.il/safety/sites/safety/files/uploads/MSDS/Nitrous-oxide.pdf

Sulfur Dioxide:

https://www.airgas.com/msds/001047.pdf